About the CBI

September 2005
Background Note: Somalia

Flag of Somalia is light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the
center.

PROFILE

OFFICIAL NAME:
Somalia

NOTE: Somalia has been without a central government since 1991, and much of
the territory has been subject to serious civil strife. There is no official
U.S. representation in Somalia. Statistical data on Somalia in this report
date from 2002 and are subject to dispute and error.

Geography
Area: 637,657 sq. km.; slightly smaller than Texas.
Cities: Capital--Mogadishu. Other cities--Beledweyne, Kismayo, Baidoa,
Jowhar, Merca, Bosasso, Hargeisa, Berbera.
Terrain: Mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in the north.
Climate: Principally desert; December to February--northeast monsoon,
moderate temperatures in north, and very hot in the south; May to
October--southwest monsoon, torrid in the north, and hot in the south;
irregular rainfall; hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons.

People
Nationality: Noun--Somali(s). Adjective--Somali.
Population (2002 est., no census exists): 9.6 million (of which an estimated
2-3 million in Somaliland).
Annual growth rate (2001 est.): 3.48%.
Ethnic groups: Somali, with a small non-Somali minority (mostly Bantu and
Arabs).
Religion: 99.9% Muslim.
Languages: Somali (official), Arabic, Italian, English.
Education: Literacy--total population that can read and write, 24%: male 36%;
female 14%.
Health: Infant mortality rate--123.97/1,000 live births. Life expectancy at
birth--total population: 46.6 yrs.
Work force (3.7 million; very few are skilled workers): Pastoral nomad--60%.
Agriculture, government, trading, fishing, industry, handicrafts, and
other--40%.

Government
Type: None.
Independence: July 1, 1960 (from a merger of the former Somaliland
Protectorate under British rule, which became independent from the UK on June
26, 1960, and Italian Somaliland, which became independent from the
Italian-administered UN trusteeship on July 1, 1960 to form the Somali
Republic).
Constitution: None in force. Note: A Transitional Federal Charter was
established in February 2004 and is expected to serve as the basis for a
future constitution in Somalia. In August 2004, the Somali Transitional
Federal Assembly (TFA) was established as part of the IGAD-led Somalia
National Reconciliation Conference in accordance with the Charter. The
Somalia National Reconciliation Conference concluded following the election
of a Transitional President in October 2004.
Branches: Executive--Somalia has had no functioning national government since
the United Somali Congress (USC) ousted the regime of Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad
"Barre" in January 1991. The present political situation in much of Somalia
is marked by inter-clan fighting and random banditry, with some areas of
peace and stability. On October 10, 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected
Transitional Federal President of Somalia for a five-year period. A Prime
Minister, Ali Mohamed Gedi was approved by the Transitional Federal Assembly
on December 24, 2004. A cabinet, consisting of 90 ministers and deputy
ministers, was appointed in January 2005. Legislative--parliamentary
(Transitional Federal Assembly, established in August 2004. Shariff Hassan
Sheilh Adan was elected Speaker of the Assembly in September 2004.)
Judicial--Supreme Court: not functioning; no nationwide system; Islamic
(shari'a) and secular courts in some localities.
Political party: None functioning. Legal system: none functioning.
Note: In 1991 a congress drawn from the inhabitants of the former Somaliland
Protectorate declared withdrawal from the 1960 union with Somalia to form the
self-declared Republic of Somaliland. Somaliland has not received
international recognition, but has maintained a de jure separate status since
that time. Its form of government is republican, with a bicameral legislature
including an elected elders chamber and a house of representatives. The
judiciary is independent, and various political parties exist. In line with
the Somaliland Constitution, Vice President Dahir Riyale Kahin assumed the
presidency following the death of former president Mohamed Ibrahim Egal in
2002. Kahin was elected President of Somaliland in elections determined to be
free and fair by international observers in May 2003. Parliamentary elections
are scheduled to take place on September 15, 2005.
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal (no nationwide elections).
Administrative subdivisions: 18 regions (plural--NA; singular--Gobolka).
Awdal, Bakool, Banaadir, Bari, Bay, Galguduud, Gedo, Hiraan, Jubbada Dhexe,
Jubbada Hoose, Mudug, Nugaal, Sanaag, Shabeellaha Dhexe, Shabeellah Hoose,
Sool, Togdheer, Woqooyi Galbeed.
Central government budget: N/A.
Defense: N/A.
National holiday: July 1 (June 26 in Somaliland).

Economy
GDP (2001 est.): U.S. $900 million.
Annual growth rate (2001 est.): 5.4%.
Per capita income: N/A.
Avg. inflation rate (2001 est.): 6.0%.
Natural resources: Largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum,
bauxite, uranium, copper, and salt; likely petroleum and natural gas
reserves.
Agriculture: Products--livestock, bananas, corn, sorghum, sugar. Arable
land--13%, of which 2% is cultivated.
Industry: Types--Telecommunications, livestock, fishing, textiles,
transportation, and limited financial services. Somalia's surprisingly
innovative private sector has continued to function despite the lack of a
functioning central government since 1991.
Trade (1999): Exports--$110 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.): livestock, bananas,
hides and skins, sugar, sorghum, corn. Major markets--Saudi Arabia, Yemen,
United Arab Emirates, Italy, Pakistan. Imports--$314 million (f.o.b., 1999
est.): food grains, animal and vegetable oils, petroleum products,
construction materials. Major suppliers--Djibouti, Kenya, Brazil, Saudi
Arabia, India.
Aid disbursed (2002): $174.4 million. Primary donors--European Union, United
States, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Italy,
Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, World Bank.
Remittances (2004 est.): $800 million to $1 billion.
U.S. assistance (2004): $29 million.

GEOGRAPHY
Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator
and, with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti, is often referred to as the Horn of
Africa. It comprises Italy's former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former
British Protectorate of Somaliland (now seeking recognition as an independent
state). The coastline extends 2,720 kilometers (1,700 mi.).

The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude
ranges between 900 and 2,100 meters (3,000 ft.-7,000 ft.) above sea level.
The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less
than 180 meters (600 ft.). The Juba and the Shabelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia
and flow south across the country toward the Indian Ocean. The Shabelle,
however, does not reach the sea.

Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal monsoon winds,
and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts. Mean daily maximum
temperatures range from 30oC to 40oC (85o F-105oF), except at higher
elevations and along the east coast. Mean daily minimums usually vary from
about 15oC to 30oC (60oF-85oF). The southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes
the period from about May to October the mildest season in Somalia. The
December-February period of the northeast monsoon also is relatively mild,
although prevailing climatic conditions in Somalia are rarely pleasant. The
"tangambili" periods that intervene between the two monsoons
(October-November and March-May) are hot and humid.

PEOPLE
The Cushitic populations of the Somali Coast in the Horn of Africa have an
ancient history. Known by ancient Arabs as the Berberi, archaeological
evidence indicates their presence in the Horn of Africa by A.D. 100 and
possibly earlier. As early as the seventh century A.D., the indigenous
Cushitic peoples began to mingle with Arab and Persian traders who had
settled along the coast. Interaction over the centuries led to the emergence
of a Somali culture bound by common traditions, a single language, and the
Islamic faith.

Today, about 60% of all Somalis are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists who
raise cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. About 25% of the population are
settled farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural zone between the
Juba and Shabelle Rivers in southern Somalia. The remainder of the population
(15%-20%) is urban.

Sizable ethnic groups in the country include Bantu agricultural workers,
several thousand Arabs and some hundreds of Indians and Pakistanis. Nearly
all inhabitants speak the Somali language, which remained unwritten until
October 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) proclaimed it the
nation's official language and decreed an orthography using Latin letters.
Somali is now the language of instruction in schools, to the extent that
these exist. Arabic, English, and Italian also are used extensively.

HISTORY
Early history traces the development of the Somali state to an Arab
sultanate, which was founded in the seventh century A.D. by Koreishite
immigrants from Yemen. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese traders
landed in present Somali territory and ruled several coastal towns. The
sultan of Oman and Zanzibar subsequently took control of these towns and
their surrounding territory.

Somalia's modern history began in the late 19th century, when various
European powers began to trade and establish themselves in the area. The
British East India Company's desire for unrestricted harbor facilities led to
the conclusion of treaties with the sultan of Tajura as early as 1840. It was
not until 1886, however, that the British gained control over northern
Somalia through treaties with various Somali chiefs who were guaranteed
British protection. British objectives centered on safeguarding trade links
to the east and securing local sources of food and provisions for its coaling
station in Aden. The boundary between Ethiopia and British Somaliland was
established in 1897 through treaty negotiations between British negotiators
and King Menelik.

During the first two decades of this century, British rule was challenged
through persistent attacks by a dervish rebellion led by Mohamed Abdullah,
known as the "Mad Mullah" by the British. A long series of intermittent
engagements and truces ended in 1920 when British warplanes bombed Abdullah's
stronghold at Taleex. Although Abdullah was defeated as much by rival Somali
factions as by British forces, he was lauded as a popular hero and stands as
a major figure of national identity to many Somalis.

In 1885, Italy obtained commercial advantages in the area from the sultan of
Zanzibar and in 1889 concluded agreements with the sultans of Obbia and
Aluula, who placed their territories under Italy's protection. Between 1897
and 1908, Italy made agreements with the Ethiopians and the British that
marked out the boundaries of Italian Somaliland. The Italian Government
assumed direct administration, giving the territory colonial status.

Italian occupation gradually extended inland. In 1924, the Jubaland Province
of Kenya, including the town and port of Kismayo, was ceded to Italy by the
United Kingdom. The subjugation and occupation of the independent sultanates
of Obbia and Mijertein, begun in 1925, were completed in 1927. In the late
1920s, Italian and Somali influence expanded into the Ogaden region of
eastern Ethiopia. Continuing incursions climaxed in 1935 when Italian forces
launched an offensive that led to the capture of Addis Ababa and the Italian
annexation of Ethiopia in 1936.

Following Italy's declaration of war on the United Kingdom in June 1940,
Italian troops overran British Somaliland and drove out the British garrison.
In 1941, British forces began operations against the Italian East African
Empire and quickly brought the greater part of Italian Somaliland under
British control. From 1941 to 1950, while Somalia was under British military
administration, transition toward self-government was begun through the
establishment of local courts, planning committees, and the Protectorate
Advisory Council. In 1948 Britain turned the Ogaden and neighboring Somali
territories over to Ethiopia.

In Article 23 of the 1947 peace treaty, Italy renounced all rights and titles
to Italian Somaliland. In accordance with treaty stipulations, on September
15, 1948, the Four Powers referred the question of disposal of former Italian
colonies to the UN General Assembly. On November 21, 1949, the General
Assembly adopted a resolution recommending that Italian Somaliland be placed
under an international trusteeship system for 10 years, with Italy as the
administering authority, followed by independence for Italian Somaliland. In
1959, at the request of the Somali Government, the UN General Assembly
advanced the date of independence from December 2 to July 1, 1960.

Meanwhile, rapid progress toward self-government was being made in British
Somaliland. Elections for the Legislative Assembly were held in February
1960, and one of the first acts of the new legislature was to request that
the United Kingdom grant the area independence so that it could be united
with Italian Somaliland when the latter became independent. The protectorate
became independent on June 26, 1960; five days later, on July 1, it joined
Italian Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.

In June 1961, Somalia adopted its first national constitution in a
countrywide referendum, which provided for a democratic state with a
parliamentary form of government based on European models. During the early
post-independence period, political parties were a fluid concept, with
one-person political parties forming before an election, only to defect to
the winning party following the election. A constitutional conference in
Mogadishu in April 1960, which made the system of government in the southern
Somali trust territory the basis for the future government structure of the
Somali Republic, resulted in the concentration of political power in the
former Italian Somalia capital of Mogadishu and a southern-dominated central
government, with most key government positions occupied by southern Somalis,
producing increased disenchantment with the union in the former
British-controlled north. Pan-Somali nationalism, with the goal of uniting
the Somali-populated regions of French Somaliland (Djibouti), Kenya and
Ethiopia into a Greater Somalia, remained the driving political ideology in
the initial post-independence period. Under the leadership of Mohamed Ibrahim
Egal (prime minister from 1967 to 1969), however, Somalia renounced its
claims to the Somali-populated regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, greatly
improving its relations with both countries. Egal attempted a similar
approach with Ethiopia, but the move towards reconciliation with Ethiopia,
which had been a traditional enemy of Somalia since the 16th century, made
many Somalis furious, including the army. Egal's reconciliation effort toward
Ethiopia is argued to be one of the principal factors that provoked a
bloodless coup on October 21, 1969 and subsequent installation of Maj. Gen.
Mohamed Siad Barre as president, bringing an abrupt end to the process of
party-based constitutional democracy in Somalia.

Following the coup, executive and legislative power was vested in the
20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), headed by Barre. The SRC
pursued a course of "scientific socialism" that reflected both ideological
and economic dependence on the Soviet Union. The government instituted a
national security service, centralized control over information, and
initiated a number of grassroots development projects. Barre reduced
political freedoms and used military force to seize and redistribute rich
farmlands in the interriverine areas of southern Somalia, relying on the use
of force and terror against the Somali population to consolidate his
political power base.

The SRC became increasingly radical in foreign affairs, and in 1974, Somalia
and the Soviet Union concluded a treaty of friendship and cooperation. As
early as 1972, tensions began increasing along the Somali-Ethiopian border;
these tensions heightened after the accession to power in Ethiopia in 1973 of
the Mengistu Haile Mariam regime, which turned increasingly toward the Soviet
Union. In the mid-1970s, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) began
guerrilla operations in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. Following the
overthrow of the Ethiopian Emperor in 1975, Somalia invaded Ethiopia in 1977
in a second attempt to regain the Ogaden, and the second attempt initially
appeared to be in Somalia's favor. The SNA moved quickly toward Harer,
Jijiga, and Dire Dawa, the principal cities of the region. However, following
the Ethiopian revolution, the new Ethiopian government shifted its alliance
from the West to the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union supplied Ethiopia
with 10,000-15,000 Cuban troops and Soviet military advisors during the
1977-78 Ogaden war, shifting the advantage to Ethiopia and resulting in
Somalia's defeat. In November 1977, Barre expelled all Soviet advisers and
abrogated the friendship agreement with the U.S.S.R. In March 1978, Somali
forces retreated into Somalia; however, the WSLF continues to carry out
sporadic but greatly reduced guerrilla activity in the Ogaden. Such
activities also were subsequently undertaken by another dissident group, the
Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).

Following the 1977-1978 Ogaden war, desperate to find a strong external
alliance to replace the Soviet Union, Somalia abandoned its Socialist
ideology and turned to the West for international support, military
equipment, and economic aid. In 1978, the United States reopened the U.S.
Agency for International Development mission in Somalia. Two years later, an
agreement was concluded that gave U.S. forces access to military facilities
at the port of Berbera in northwestern Somalia. In the summer of 1982,
Ethiopian forces invaded Somalia along the central border, and the United
States provided two emergency airlifts to help Somalia defend its territorial
integrity. From 1982 to 1988, the United States viewed Somalia as a partner
in defense in the context of the Cold War. Somali officers of the National
Armed Forces were trained in U.S. military schools in civilian as well as
military subjects.

Paranoid and weakened following the Ogaden war, the Barre regime violently
suppressed opposition movements and ethnic groups, particularly the Issaq
clan in the northern region, using the military and elite security forces to
quash any hint of rebellion. By the 1980s, an all-out civil war developed in
Somalia. Opposition groups began to form following the end of the Ogaden war,
beginning in 1979 with a group of dissatisfied army officers known as the
Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). In 1981, as a result of increased
northern discontent with the Barre regime, the Somali National Movement
(SNM), composed mainly of the Issaq clan, was formed in Hargeisa with the
stated goal of overthrowing of the Barre regime. In 1988, at the President's
order, aircraft from the Somali National Air Force bombed the city of
Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia, the former capital of British Somaliland,
killing nearly 10,000 civilians and insurgents. The warfare in the northwest
sped up the decay already evident elsewhere in the republic. Economic crisis,
brought on by the cost of anti-insurgency activities, caused further hardship
as Siad Barre and his cronies looted the national treasury.

By the end of the 1980s, armed opposition to Barre's government, fully
operational in the northern regions, had spread to the central and southern
regions. Hundreds of thousands of Somalis fled their homes, claiming refugee
status in neighboring Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya. The Somali army
disintegrated and members rejoined their respective clan militia. Barre's
effective territorial control was reduced to the immediate areas surrounding
Mogadishu known as the Benadir, earning Barre the title "Mayor of Mogadishu"
and resulting in the withdrawal of external assistance and support, including
from the United States. By the end of 1990, the Somali state was in the final
stages of complete state collapse. In the first week of December 1990, Barre
declared a state of emergency as USC and SNM forces advanced toward
Mogadishu. Barre began to lose control over his own militia groups and became
increasingly isolated. In January 1991, armed opposition factions drove Barre
out of power, resulting in the complete collapse of the central government.
Barre later died in exile in Nigeria. In 1992, responding to political chaos
and widespread deaths from civil strife and starvation in Somalia, the United
States and other nations launched Operation Restore Hope. Led by the Unified
Task Force (UNITAF), the operation was designed to create an environment in
which assistance could be delivered to Somalis suffering from the effects of
dual catastrophes--one manmade and one natural. UNITAF was followed by the
United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM). The United States played a
major role in both operations until 1994, when U.S. forces withdrew.

After the attack on the United States of September 11, 2001, Somalia gained
greater international attention as a possible entrepot for international
terrorism--a concern that became the primary element in U.S. policy toward
Somalia. The United States and other members of the anti-terrorism coalition
examined a variety of short- and long-term measures designed to address the
threat of terrorism in and emanating from Somalia. The United Nations also
took an increased interest in Somalia, including proposals for an increased
UN presence and for strengthening a 1992 arms embargo. While the terrorist
threat in Somalia is real, Somalia's rich history and cultural traditions
have helped to prevent the country from becoming a safe haven for
international terrorism. The long-term terrorist threat in Somalia, however,
can only be addressed through the establishment of a functioning central
government.

GOVERNMENT
Somalia has no national government at present; however, a two-year
reconciliation process led by the Inter-governmental Authority on Development
(IGAD) concluded in October 2004 following the formation of a transitional
parliament, known as the Transitional Federal Assembly, in August 2004, and
election of a Transitional President in October 2004. A Prime Minister was
approved by the Assembly in December 2004 and subsequently formed a cabinet
in January 2005. The formation of transitional governing institutions, known
as the Transitional Federal Institutions, continues to move forward slowly.
For administrative purposes, Somalia is divided into 18 regions; the nature,
authority, and structure of regional governments vary, where they exist.

Principal Government Officials
Somalia has no national government at present; however, Shariff Hassan Sheikh
Adan was elected as Speaker of the Assembly in September 2004, Abdullahi
Yusuf Ahmed was elected as Transitional Federal President of Somalia in
October 2004, and Ali Mohamed Gedi was approved by the Transitional Federal
Assembly as Prime Minister on December 24, 2004. A cabinet was formed in
January 2005. While most members of the transitional government have
relocated to Somalia, the Transitional Federal Institutions have yet to
establish authority inside Somalia.

The self-declared "Republic of Somaliland" consists of a regional authority
based in the city of Hargeisa, including a President, Vice President,
parliament, and cabinet officials.

Other Ministers N/A
Ambassador to the United States--vacant
Ambassador to the UN--Ahmed Abdi Hashi

POLITICAL CONDITIONS
In the wake of the collapse of the Somali Government, factions organized
around military leaders took control of Somalia. The resulting chaos and loss
of life promoted the international intervention led by the United States,
UNITAF. That operation was followed by the United Nations Operation in
Somalia (UNOSOM), which ended in 1994. Since 1991, there have been fourteen
efforts at national reconciliation; to date, none has been successful.
Various groupings of Somali factions have sought to control the national
territory (or portions thereof) and have fought small wars with one another.
Dahir Riyale Kahin was elected President of the self-declared "Republic of
Somaliland," which is made up of the former northwest provinces of the Somali
republic, in presidential elections deemed free and fair by international
observers in May 2003. In 1998, the area of Puntland in the northeast
declared itself autonomous (although not independent) as the "State of
Puntland" with its capital at Garowe. Puntland declared it would remain
autonomous until a federated Somalia state was established.

Efforts at mediation of the Somali internal dispute have been undertaken by
many regional states. In the mid-1990s, Ethiopia played host to several
Somali peace conferences and initiated talks at the Ethiopian city of Sodere,
which led to some degree of agreement between competing factions. The
Governments of Egypt, Yemen, Kenya, and Italy also have attempted to bring
the Somali factions together. In 1997, the Organization of African Unity and
the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) gave Ethiopia the
mandate to pursue Somali reconciliation. In 2000, Djibouti hosted a major
reconciliation conference (the 13th such effort), which in August resulted in
creation of the Transitional National Government (TNG), whose 3-year mandate
expired in August 2003. In early 2002, Kenya organized a further
reconciliation effort under IGAD auspices known as the Somalia National
Reconciliation Conference, which concluded in October 2004. In August 2004,
the Somali Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA) was established as part of the
IGAD-led process, with Shariff Hassan Sheik Adan as its Speaker. Abdullahi
Yusuf Ahmed was elected Transitional Federal President of Somalia on October
10, 2004 and Ali Mohamed Gedi was approved by the Transitional Federal
Assembly as Prime Minister on December 24, 2004 as part of the continued
formation of a Transitional Federal Government (TFG). A cabinet was formed in
January 2005.

The absence of a central government in Somalia since 1991 has allowed outside
forces to become more influential by supporting various groups and persons in
Somalia, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya,
all of which have supported various Somali factions and transitional
governments.

ECONOMY
Somalia lacks natural resources and faces major development challenges, and
recent economic reverses have left its people increasingly dependent on
remittances from abroad. Its economy is pastoral and agricultural, with
livestock--principally camels, cattle, sheep, and goats--representing the
main form of wealth. Livestock exports in recent years have been severely
reduced by periodic bans, ostensibly for concerns of animal health, by
Arabian Peninsula states. Drought has also impaired agricultural and
livestock production. Because rainfall is scanty and irregular, farming
generally is limited to certain coastal districts, areas near Hargeisa, and
the Juba and Shabelle River valleys. The agricultural sector of the economy
consists mainly of banana plantations located in the south, which has used
modern irrigation systems and up-to-date farm machinery.

A small fishing industry has begun in the north where tuna, shark, and other
warm-water fish are caught, although fishing production is seriously affected
by poaching and the lack of ability to grant concessions because of the
absence of a functioning central government. Aromatic woods--frankincense and
myrrh--from a small and diminishing forest also contribute to the country's
exports. Minerals, including uranium and likely deposits of petroleum and
natural gas, are found throughout the country, but have not been exploited
commercially. Petroleum exploration efforts, at one time under way, have
ceased due to insecurity and instability. Illegal production in the south of
charcoal for export has led to widespread deforestation. With the help of
foreign aid, small industries such as textiles, handicrafts, meat processing,
and printing are being established.

The absence of central government authority, as well as profiteering from
counterfeiting, has rapidly debased Somalia's currency. By the spring of
2002, the Somali shilling had fallen to over 30,000 shillings to the U.S.
dollar. The self-declared Republic of Somaliland issues its own currency, the
Somaliland shilling, which is not accepted outside of the self-declared
republic.

There are no railways in Somalia; internal transportation is by truck and
bus. The national road system nominally comprises 22,100 kilometers (13,702
mi.) of roads that include about 2,600 kilometers (1,612 mi.) of all-weather
roads, although most roads have received little maintenance for years and
have seriously deteriorated.

Air transportation is provided by small air charter firms and craft used by
drug smugglers. A number of airlines operate from Hargeisa. Some private
airlines, including Daallo Airlines, serve several domestic locations as well
as Djibouti and the United Arab Emirates. The UN and other NGOs operate air
service for their missions.

The European Community and the World Bank jointly financed construction of a
deepwater port at Mogadishu (currently closed). The Soviet Union improved
Somalia's deepwater port at Berbera in 1969. Facilities at Berbera were
further improved by a U.S. military construction program completed in 1985,
but they have since become dilapidated. During the 1990s the United States
renovated a deepwater port at Kismayo that serves the fertile Juba River
basin and is vital to Somalia's banana export industry. Smaller ports are
located at Merca, Brava, and Bossaso. Absence of security and lack of
maintenance and improvement are major issues at most Somali ports.

Radiotelephone service is available to both to regional and international
locations. The public telecommunications system has been destroyed or
dismantled, but cellular phone service is readily available throughout the
country. Somalia is linked to the outside world via ship-to-shore
communications (INMARSAT) as well as links to overseas satellite operators by
private telecommunications operators (including cellular telephone systems)
in major towns. Radio broadcasting stations operate at Mogadishu, Hargeisa,
and Galkaiyo, with programs in Somali and some other languages. There are two
television broadcast stations in Mogadishu and one in Hargeisa.

DEFENSE
There are no Somali armed forces. Before the collapse of the Siad Barre
regime and dissolution of the national armed forces in 1991, the Somali
National Army was made up of the army, navy, air force, and air defense
command. Various groups and factions throughout Somalia currently control
militias ranging in strength from hundreds to thousands. These militias are
in general poorly trained and lightly armed, although some groups possess
limited inventories of older armored vehicles and other heavy weapons and
small arms are prevalent throughout Somalia.

FOREIGN RELATIONS
Somalia followed a foreign policy of nonalignment for a brief period
following independence. In 1970, the Siad Barre regime declared a national
ideology based on scientific Socialism and aligned its foreign policy with
the Soviet Union and China. In the 1980s, Somalia shifted its alignment to
the West following a territorial conflict with Ethiopia over the disputed
Somali-populated region of the Ogaden from 1977-78, which was supported by
the Soviet Union. The central government also sought ties with many Arab
countries, and continued to receive financial and military support from
several Arab countries prior to its collapse in 1991. Five countries,
including Saudi Arabia, Libya and Egypt, extended recognition to the
now-defunct Transitional National Government and continue to provide
assistance to Somalia.

The status of expatriate Somalis has been an important foreign and domestic
issue. The Somali-populated region of the Horn of Africa stretches from the
Gulf of Tadjoura in modern-day Djibouti through Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, and down
to the coastal regions of southern Kenya. Unlike many countries in Africa,
the Somali nation extends beyond its national borders. Since gaining
independence in 1960, the goal of Somali nationalism, also known as
Pan-Somalism, has been the unification of all Somali populations, forming a
Greater Somalia. This issue has been a major cause of past crises between
Somalia and its neighbors--Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti.

In 1963, Somalia severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom for a
period following a dispute over Kenya's northeastern region (Northern
Frontier District), an area inhabited mainly by Somalis. Related problems
have arisen from the boundary with Ethiopia and the large-scale migrations of
Somali nomads between Ethiopia and Somalia.

In the aftermath of the 1977-78 Somali-Ethiopian war, the Government of
Somalia continued to call for self-determination for ethnic Somalis living in
the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia. At the March 1983 Nonaligned Movement
summit in New Delhi, President Siad Barre stated that Somalia harbored no
expansionist aims and was willing to negotiate with Ethiopia over the
disputed Ogaden region.

Since the fall of the Barre regime, the foreign policy of the various
entities in Somalia has centered on gaining international recognition,
winning international support for national reconciliation, and obtaining
international economic assistance.

U.S.-SOMALI RELATIONS
Although the U.S. never formally severed diplomatic relations with Somalia,
official relations were interrupted by the fall of the government and have
not been fully reestablished in the continued absence of a national
government. The United States maintains informal contacts with a number of
entities in Somalia.

Principal U.S. Officials
Ambassador--vacant

The U.S. Embassy has been closed since 1991. U.S. contacts with Somalia,
including consular coverage, are maintained by U.S. Embassy Nairobi, Kenya.